info:eu-repo/semantics/published
Fluid resuscitation is an essential aspect of the management of patients with severe sepsis and septic shock, especially in the early stages of disease. Which fluid should be used for this purpose has been a topic of ongoing and sometimes heated debate for many years, yet this is still little evidence to support one fluid over another. Each fluid type has specific adverse effects, and all fluids when given in excess can be detrimental. In this article, we will review the advantages and limitations of the key fluid types currently used for the resuscitation of critically ill patients with sepsis, including the crystalloids (saline solutions and Ringer's lactate), and the colloids (albumin, gelatins, dextrans, and hydroxyethyl starches). We will then briefly summarize the limited evidence to support use of one fluid type over another, and provide general suggestions for fluid use in these patients.
Acute cardiac syndromes are common and responsible for considerable mortality and morbidity. Decision making in such patients can be difficult clinically but can also be complex and challenging from an ethical perspective. This chapter reviews some of the ethical problems, including organ donation and withholding/withdrawing, that can occur in the acutely ill adult cardiac patient, starting with a brief look at the ethical principles that should guide our decision making: beneficence, non-maleficence, autonomy, and distributive justice. The role of advance directives and considerations related to family presence during cardiopulmonary resuscitation will also be discussed. With the increasing incidence and prevalence of coronary artery disease worldwide, the number of patients with cardiac arrest and requiring acute cardiac care is going to increase, and doctors will increasingly be faced with difficult ethical decisions associated with these patients. Open discussion and debate about these issues and good communication among patients, family members, and members of the health care team are essential to ensure that all patients receive the best possible end-of-life care.
Over the last 100 years, huge advances have been made in the field of sepsis in terms of pathophysiology, epidemiology, diagnosis, monitoring, and therapeutics. Here, we offer our perspective of the key changes and current situation in each of these areas. Despite these changes, mortality rates remain unacceptably high and continued progress, particularly in early diagnosis and therapy, is urgently needed.
A randomized, multicenter trial conducted in 32 northern European general intensive care units (ICUs) enrolled some patients with septic shock randomly assigned to receive a red blood cell transfusion when the hemoglobin (Hb) level was ≤7 g/dL ("lower threshold"; N.=502) or ≤9 g/dL ("higher threshold"; N.=496) throughout the ICU stay. Patients were excluded if they had an acute coronary syndrome, life-threatening bleeding, acute burn injury, had already been transfused or had previously experienced transfusion-related reactions. The two groups of patients had comparable severity of disease scores and chronic cardiovascular conditions. Median Hb values were 7.7 g/dL in the lower and 9.3 g/dL in the higher threshold groups and these values remained stable during the study period. There was no significant difference in 90-day mortality (primary end-point) between the two groups (216/502, 43.0% in the lower vs. 223/496, 45.0% in the higher group, RR 0.94 [95% CI: 0.78-1.09; P=0.44]), even after adjustment for several confounders. In the higher threshold group, approximately twice as many transfusions were given (3088 vs. 1545 units transfused, P<0.001) as in the lower threshold group. In the lower threshold group, more patients received no RBC transfusion (36% vs. 1.2%, P<0.001) than in the higher threshold group, but there were also more temporary protocol suspensions (5.9 % vs. 2.2%, P=0.004), in particular because of myocardial ischemia (6/488, 1.2% vs. 0/489), life-threatening bleeding (18/488, 3.7% vs. 9/489, 1.8%) and need for higher Hb levels during extracorporeal membrane oxygenation therapy. We discuss how anemia should be managed in patients with sepsis or other critical illness, especially in the context of the potential risks associated with RBC transfusion and data from other recent large randomized trials.
Plasma endotoxin and lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP) levels were measured in a group of 253 patients at the onset of severe sepsis and/or septic shock. Endotoxin levels were significantly greater than control levels (n=33; mean +/- SD, 5.1+/-7.3 pg/mL) in 78.3% of patients. Median endotoxin levels in patients with sepsis were 300 pg/mL (25%-75% interquartile range, 110-726 pg/mL). LBP levels were elevated in 97% of patients compared with normal control values of 4.1+/-1.65 microgram/mL. Median LBP levels in patients with sepsis were 31.2 microgram/mL (interquartile range, 22.5-47.7 microgram/mL). Median endotoxin levels at study entry were more highly elevated (515 vs. 230 pg/mL; P<.01), and LBP levels were less highly elevated (28.0 vs. 33.2 microgram/mL; P<.05) in nonsurvivors than survivors over the 28-day study period. No correlation was found between endotoxin and LBP levels. The quantitative level of both endotoxin and LBP may have prognostic significance in patients with severe sepsis.
