Since 1990, there has been a major growth in and diversification of science worldwide, and of cross-border collaboration between scientists. Many lower middle-income countries now have their own science systems and one quarter of all papers have international co-authors. Science combines the networked open global science system, characterized by bottom-up cooperation between researchers, with bordered national science systems which shape activity through the provision of resources and the regulation of scientific institutions. The global and national systems overlap but have differing dynamics. This chapter discusses the character of each kind of science system, noting that countries vary in the extent to which they expand national networks compared to their participation in global networks.
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