Sand dunes: diverse, dynamic, in danger?

Sand dunes support a high level of biodiversity and ecological interest, but face a number of threats. In this article, key threats such as nitrogen deposition and climate change are discussed, together with implications for management to tackle them. Nitrogen promotes plant growth, causes declines in species richness and alters soil processes, typically speeding up rates of N cycling. Climate change has similar impacts, and slight changes in evapotranspiration and therefore the amount of recharge to groundwater may also cause drying of dune wetlands. These threats act synergistically, with warming exacerbating impacts of N deposition and vice versa. Management should consider impacts on both habitat suitability and on N removal, and be aware that under climate change and N deposition, management activities will need to become more frequent and often more intensive to counteract their combined effects.