In order to advance scientific knowledge, it is important to maintain consistency regarding the methodologies and units/levels of analysis employed to test a theory's main claims. Thus, this investigation provides a critical examination of the papers that have aimed to test the trade-off model and its competing concepts. The analysis focuses on the methodologies used to examine the validity of such models and theories, and also on the operationalisation of the variables that represent the level of analysis by which those theories are tested. To aid in the investigation, a framework to distinguish measures of performance with an internal and external reference and perspective is proposed. The results show that current methodologies, approaches and rationales used to determine the validity of the trade-off model or its rival concepts observe important limitations, as they do not address the trade-off model's core principles. Those limitations in turn make the results of those studies questionable. Consequently, it is proposed that in order to advance theory in our field, more consistent methods and approaches should be utilised.
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