Management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Asia and Africa.

This review examines whether the comprehensive programme recommended by the Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD), developed mostly by physicians in industrialised countries, can be applied in developing countries. In developing countries, there are several major limitations to the implementation of the programme. First, management of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients is not a priority in competing for health care resources. Second, only major medical centres in developing countries have spirometers; the reliance on spirometric testing for diagnosis, staging and treatment options, as recommended by the GOLD guidelines, makes it almost impossible for the programme to be implemented. Third, in many Asian and African countries, regular monitoring is often restricted to patients with severe COPD who have frequent hospitalisations or clinic visits for exacerbations and complications. Fourth, the choice of therapy usually depends on the availability and cost of drugs. Finally, given the aetiological role of sequelae of lung infections, including tuberculosis, the appropriateness and safety of using intermittent courses of oral steroids during acute exacerbations and of long-term, high-dose inhaled corticosteroids for moderate to severe COPD in developing countries has not been evaluated. Developing countries in Asia and Africa may need to adapt the GOLD guidelines according to varying aetiology, local health care resources, socio-economic and cultural factors and development of health services. Prevention programmes, especially for tobacco control, are of paramount importance. National and international efforts must be directed towards controlling the tobacco epidemic in developing countries to reduce the burden of COPD and other tobacco-induced diseases.