Human Factor Influences on Supervisory Control of Remotely Operated and Autonomous Vessels

Autonomous ships require efficient remote monitoring and human control intervention to ensure safety. However, there are knowledge gaps concerning human factors influences on remote supervisory control. We investigate the influence of five factors on remote supervisory control using a simulator experiment: (i) Skill, represented by either experienced navigators or gamers; (ii) Vigilance, manipulated by either 5 or 30 minutes in passive monitoring; (iii) Multitasking, represented by either 1 or 3 supervised vessels; (iv) Time Pressure, represented by 20- or 60-second critical time windows; (v) Decision Support, represented by presence or absence of a Decision Support System (DSS). The experiment was a randomized factorial design (n = 32) where volunteers completed a handover (automation detects a critical event and hands over control) and a takeover (operator detects a critical event and takes over control). We observed the following results: (i) Skill influenced performance when combined with Multitasking and Decision Support, favoring gamers; (ii) Vigilance influenced performance when combined with Time Pressure; (iii) Multitasking influenced performance directly, as did (iv) Time Pressure and (v) Decision Support. These outcomes contribute to the empirical basis of maritime human factors research and to safer design of autonomous vessels and their remote control centers.