Despite considerable recent interest in how biodiversity may influence ecosystem properties, the issue of how plant diversity and composition may affect multiple trophic levels in soil food webs remains essentially unexplored. We conducted a glasshouse experiment in which three plant species of each of three functional groups (grasses, N‐fixing legumes and forbs) were grown in monoculture and in mixtures of three species (with the three species being in the same or different functional groups) and all nine species. Plant species identity had important effects on the biomasses or population densities of belowground primary consumers (microbial biomass, herbivorous nematodes) and two groups of secondary consumers (microbe‐feeding nematodes and enchytraeids); the third consumer trophic level (predatory nematodes) was marginally not significantly affected at P =0.05. Plant species also influenced the relative importance of the bacterial‐based and fungal‐based energy channels for both the primary and secondary consumer trophic levels. Within‐group diversity of only the soil microflora and herbivorous nematodes (both representing the basal consumer trophic level) were affected by plant species identity. However, community composition within all trophic groupings considered (herbivorous nematodes, microbes, microbe‐feeding nematodes, predatory nematodes) was strongly influenced by what plant species were present. Despite the strong responses of the soil biota to plant species identity, there were few effects of plant species or functional group richness on any of the belowground response variables measured. Further, net primary productivity (NPP) was unaffected by plant diversity. Since some belowground response variables were correlated with NPP across treatments, it is suggested that belowground responses to plant diversity might become more apparent in situations when NPP itself responds to plant diversity. Our results point to plant species identity as having important multitrophic effects on soil food webs, both at the whole trophic group and within‐group levels of resolution, and suggest that differences in plant traits across species may be important in driving the decomposer subsystem.
Plants can release chemicals into the environment that suppress the growth and establishment of other plants in their vicinity: a process known as ‘allelopathy’. However, chemicals with allelopathic functions have other ecological roles, such as plant defense, nutrient chelation, and regulation of soil biota in ways that affect decomposition and soil fertility. These ecosystem-scale roles of allelopathic chemicals can augment, attenuate or modify their community-scale functions. In this review we explore allelopathy in the context of ecosystem properties, and through its role in exotic invasions consider how evolution might affect the intensity and importance of allelopathic interactions.
No abstract is provided for this article.
Fire has an important role for regeneration of many boreal forest tree species, and this includes both wildfire and prescribed burning following clear-cutting. Depending on the severity, fire can have a variety of effects on above- and below-ground properties that impact tree seedling establishment. Very little is known about the impacts of ground fire severity on post-fire seedling performance, or how the effects of fire severity interact with those of canopy structure. We conducted a full-factorial experiment that manipulated surface-burn severity (no burn; light, medium, or heavy burn; or scarification) and canopy (closed forest or open clear-cut) to reveal their interactive effects on ecophysiological traits of establishing broadleaf and conifer seedlings in a Swedish boreal forest. Medium and heavy surface burns increased seedling growth, photosynthesis, respiration, and foliar N and P concentrations, and these effects were most apparent in open clear-cuts. Growth rates of all species responded similarly to surface-burn treatments, although photosynthesis, foliar P, and specific leaf area were more responsive to burning treatments for broadleaf species than for conifers. Our study demonstrates that the positive impacts of fire on tree seedling physiology are dependent on a minimum severity threshold and are more effective when combined with clear-cutting.
No abstract is provided for this article.
No abstract is provided for this article.
Summary: Résumé: Zusammenfassung Swards of 10 pasture species (six grasses and four legumes) were established and planted with seeds of either of the thistle species Carduus nutans L. or Cirsium vulgare L., and emergence and growth of the thistle seedlings were subsequently monitored. Emergence of C. nutans seedlings was inhibited by ryegrass ( Lolium perenne L.) and Yorkshire fog ( Holcus lanatus L.) swards, while C, vulgare emergence was inhibited by Yorkshire fog relative to some of the other treatments. Speed of emergence of C. nutans and absolute emergence of C. vulgare seedlings were significantly negatively correlated with pasture cover density, presumably as a consequence of alteration of light quality by the pasture swards. All pasture species inhibited seedling shoot and root growth of both thistle species, although the grasses were the most effective inhibitors. The seedling emergence and growth data for C. nutans in the swards of the 10 species were significantly correlated with the results of a previous study on residual allelopathic effects of the same 10 species on nodding thistle root growth. It is concluded that inhibitory (including allelopathic) influences of pasture species on thistle seedlings have considerable potential as a mechanism for managing problematic thistle populations. Influence de converts de pature de graminees et de legumineuses sur la levée et la croissance de Carduus nutans L. et Cirsium vulgare L. Des couverts de 10 espèces fourrageres (6 graminées et 4 légumineuses) ont étéétablis et infestés avec des graines de 1'une ou 1'autre des espèces de chardon, Carduus nutans L. et Cirsium vulgare L.; la levée et la croissance des plantules de chardon ont été ensuite suivies. La levée des plantules de C. nutans a été inhibéee par les couverts de ray‐grass ( LoliumperenneL. ) et de houlque laineuse ( Holcus lanatus L.) tandis que la levée de C. vulgare était inhibée par la houlque laineuse en comparaison de quelques‐unes des autres modalites. La vitesse de levée de C. nutans et la levée globale de C. vulgare ont été corrélées négativement de façon significative avec la densité du couvert, probablement en conséquence de 1'altération de la qualité de la lumière par les tapis, fourragers. Toutes les espèces de fourrages ont inhibé la croissance des tiges et des racines des plantules des 2 espèces de chardon, bien que les graminèes aient été des inhibiteurs plus efficaces. La Ievée des plantules et les chiffres de la croissance de C. nutans dans les couverts des 10 espéces étaient correlées de façon significative avec les résultats d'une étude antérieure sur les effets allélopathiques résiduels de quelques‐unes des 10 espèces sur la croissance racinaire du chardon. II est conclu que les effets inhibiteurs (y compris I'allélopathie) des espèces fourragères sur les plantules de chardon ont un potentiel considèrable pour gérer le problème des populations de chardon. Einfluβ von Weidegräser‐ und Leguminosen‐Beständen auf Samenkeimung und Wachstum von Carduus nutans L. und Cirsium vulgare L. In Beständen von 10 Weide‐Pflanzenarten (6 Gräser und 4 Leguminosen) wurden Samen der Disteln Carduus nutans L. und Cirsium vulgare L. ausgebracht und deren Keimung und Wachstum beobachtet. Die Keimung von Carduus nutans wurde in Beständen von Weidelgras ( Lolium perenne L.) und Wolligem Honiggras ( Holcus lanatus L.) gehemmt, während die Keimung von Cirsium vulgare in Wolligem Honiggras genauso wie in einigen anderen Beständen gehemmt war. Die Keimungsgeschwindigkeit von Carduus nutans und die gesamte Keimung von Cirsium vulgäre waren signifikant negativ mit der Dichte der Weide‐Pflanzenbestände korreliert, vermutlich wegen Änderung der Lichtqualität durch die Pflanzendecke. Alle Weide‐Pflanzenarten, besonders jedoch die Gräser, hemmten das Sproß‐ und Wurzelwachstum der Keimpflanzen der beiden Disteln. Keimung und Wachstum der Carduus‐nutans ‐Keimpflanzen in den Beständen der 10 Arten entsprachen ganz den Befunden einer früheren Untersuchung über allelopathische Wirkungen derselben 10 Arten auf das Wurzelwachstum der Nickenden Distel. Den Hemmwirkungen (einschließlich allelopathischen) von Weide‐Pflanzenarten auf Distel‐Keim‐pflanzen kommt offenbar eine erhebliche Bedeutung für die Unterdrückung problematischer Distelpopulationen zu.
Past research has demonstrated that decreased biodiversity often reduces ecosystem productivity, but variation in the shape of biodiversity–ecosystem function (BEF) relationships begets the need for a deeper mechanistic understanding of what drives these patterns. While mechanisms involving competition are often invoked, the role of facilitation is overlooked, or lumped within several less explicitly defined processes (e.g., complementarity effects). Here, we explore recent advances in understanding how facilitation affects BEF relationships and identify three categories of facilitative mechanisms that can drive variation in those relationships. Species interactions underlying BEF relationships are complex, but the framework we present provides a step toward understanding this complexity and predicting how facilitation contributes to the ecosystem role of biodiversity in a rapidly changing environment.
Forest dwelling browsing mammals, notably feral goats and deer, have been introduced to New Zealand over the past 220 years; prior to this such mammals were absent from New Zealand. The New Zealand forested landscape, therefore, presents an almost unique opportunity to determine the impacts of introduction of an entire functional group of alien animals to a habitat from which that group was previously absent. We sampled 30 long-term fenced exclosure plots in indigenous forests throughout New Zealand to evaluate community- and ecosystem-level impacts of introduced browsing mammals, emphasizing the decomposer subsystem. Browsing mammals often significantly altered plant community composition, reducing palatable broad-leaved species and promoting other less palatable types. Vegetation density in the browse layer was also usually reduced. Although there were some small but statistically significant effects of browsing on some measures of soil quality across the 30 locations, there were no consistent effects on components of the soil microfood web (comprising microflora and nematodes, and spanning three consumer trophic levels); while there were clear multitrophic effects of browsing on this food web for several locations, comparable numbers of locations showed stimulation and inhibition of biomasses or populations of food web components. In contrast, all microarthropod and macrofaunal groups were consistently adversely affected by browsing, irrespective of trophic position. Across the 30 locations, the magnitude of response of the dominant soil biotic groups to browsing mammals (and hence their resistance to browsers) was not correlated with the magnitude of vegetation response to browsing but was often strongly related to a range of other variables, including macroclimatic, soil nutrient, and tree stand properties. There were often strong significant effects of browsing mammals on species composition of the plant community, species composition of leaf litter in the litter layer, and composition of various litter-dwelling faunal groups. Across the 30 locations, the magnitude of browsing mammal effects on faunal community composition was often correlated with browser effects on litter layer leaf species composition but never with browser effects on plant community composition. Browsing mammals usually reduced browse layer plant diversity and often also altered habitat diversity in the litter layer and diversity of various soil faunal groups. Across the 30 locations, the magnitude of browser effects on diversity of only one faunal group, humus-dwelling nematodes, was correlated with browser effects on plant diversity. However, browser effects on diversity of diplopods and gastropods were correlated with browser effects on habitat diversity of the litter layer. Reasons for the lack of unidirectional relationships across locations between effects of browsers on vegetation community attributes and on soil invertebrate community attributes are discussed. Browsing mammals generally did not have strong effects on C mineralization but did significantly influence soil C and N storage on an areal basis for several locations. However the direction of these effects was idiosyncratic and presumably reflects different mechanisms by which browsers affect soil processes. While our study did not support hypotheses predicting consistent negative effects of browsing mammals on the decomposer subsystem through promotion of plant species with poorer litter quality, our results still show that the introduction of these mammals to New Zealand has caused far-ranging effects at both the community and ecosystem levels of resolution, with particularly adverse effects for indigenous plant communities and populations of most groups of litter-dwelling mesofauna and macrofauna.
Introduced animals can indirectly affect decomposers through trophic cascades and habitat modifications, but whether their effects are strong enough to influence both the structure and function of decomposer communities remains unclear. We conducted an experiment on rat‐invaded and rat‐free islands off the coast of New Zealand to determine whether introduced rats affected the structure and function of wood‐decomposing fungi. Gamma‐irradiated branch segments from a single tree were placed on the forest floor on nine rat‐invaded and nine rat‐free islands, and fungal community structure and wood decomposition rates measured after two years of in situ decomposition. We found significant differences in fungal community structure in the wood between rat‐invaded and rat‐free islands. Furthermore, there was a significant correlation between fungal community structure and wood decomposition rate on rat‐free islands but not on rat‐invaded islands, because of decreased variability in decomposition rates on invaded islands. Despite these differences between rat‐free and rat‐invaded islands, mean decomposition rates were indistinguishable between the two sets of islands. These results suggest that there may be a great deal of functional redundancy in fungal communities and that removing rats from islands could reverse the rat‐induced changes that we observed in the relationship between the structure and function of decomposer communities.
Belowground communities usually support a much greater diversity of organisms than do corresponding aboveground ones, and while the factors that regulate their diversity are far less well understood, a growing number of recent studies have presented data relevant to understanding how these factors operate. This review considers how biotic factors influence community diversity within major groups of soil organisms across a broad spectrum of spatial scales, and addresses the mechanisms involved. At the most local scale, soil biodiversity may potentially be affected by interactions within trophic levels or by direct trophic interactions. Within the soil, larger bodied invertebrates can also influence diversity of smaller sized organisms by promoting dispersal and through modification of the soil habitat. At larger scales, individual plant species effects, vegetation composition, plant species diversity, mixing of plant litter types, and aboveground trophic interactions, all impact on soil biodiversity. Further, at the landscape scale, soil diversity also responds to vegetation change and succession. This review also considers how a conceptual understanding of the biotic drivers of soil biodiversity may assist our knowledge of key topics in community and ecosystem ecology, such as aboveground–belowground interactions, and the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. It is concluded that an improved understanding of what drives the diversity of life in the soil, incorporated within appropriate conceptual frameworks, should significantly aid our understanding of the structure and functioning of terrestrial communities.
