Exosomes, natural nanovesicles that contain a cargo of biologically active molecules such as lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, are released from cells to the extracellular environment. They then act as autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine mediators of communication between cells by delivering their cargo into recipient cells and causing downstream effects. Exosomes are greatly enriched in miRNAs, which are small non-coding RNAs that act as cytoplasmic posttranscriptional repression agents, modulating the translation of mRNAs into proteins, as well as nuclear transcriptional gene activators. Neuronal exosomal miRNAs have important physiologic functions in the Central Nervous System (CNS), including cell-to-cell communication, synaptic plasticity, and neurogenesis, as well as modulating stress and inflammatory responses. Stress-induced changes of exosomal functions include effects on neurogenesis and neuroinflammation, which can lead to the appearance of various neuropsychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia, major depression, bipolar disorder, and Alzheimer's and Huntington’s's diseases. The current knowledge regarding the roles of exosomes in the pathophysiology of common mental disorders is discussed in this review.
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (a major component of the stress system) and the immune system contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis at rest and during stress. Because of their essential roles for the survival of self and species, the activities of these systems have evolutionarily developed in parallel and are intertwined at many levels. In this issue of the JCI, Ezzat et al. demonstrate that Ikaros, a differentiation factor of leukocyte lineage, also influences the maturation of the fetal pituitary corticotroph and, hence, the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone before and after birth. These results indicate that Ikaros is an ontogenetic and phylogenetic integrator of the stress and immune systems and that abnormalities in its function may produce endocrine and/or immune pathologies.
Journal Article The corticotropin releasing factor stimulation test in the evaluation of patients with adrenal insufficiency Get access H M Schulte, H M Schulte Abt.für Klinisehe Endokrinologie, Medizinische Klinik, Universität Essen, Bethesda, MD, USADEB/NICHD, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar G P Chrousos, G P Chrousos Abt.für Klinisehe Endokrinologie, Medizinische Klinik, Universität Essen, Bethesda, MD, USADEB/NICHD, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar E H Oldfield, E H Oldfield Abt.für Klinisehe Endokrinologie, Medizinische Klinik, Universität Essen, Bethesda, MD, USADEB/NICHD, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar G B Cutler, JR, G B Cutler, JR Abt.für Klinisehe Endokrinologie, Medizinische Klinik, Universität Essen, Bethesda, MD, USADEB/NICHD, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar D L Loriaux D L Loriaux Abt.für Klinisehe Endokrinologie, Medizinische Klinik, Universität Essen, Bethesda, MD, USADEB/NICHD, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA Search for other works by this author on: Oxford Academic Google Scholar Acta Endocrinologica (Norway), Volume 104, Issue 4_Supplement_b, Dec 1984, Pages S37–S38, https://doi.org/10.1530/acta.0.107S037 Published: 01 December 1984
Aldosterone is crucial for regulating sodium conservation in the kidney, salivary glands, sweat glands, and colon. This adrenal steroid hormone acts via the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) to promote active transport of sodium and potassium excretion in its target tissues, through activation of specific amiloride-sensitive sodium channels (ENaC) and a Na-K ATP-ase pump. Defective aldosterone biosynthesis or action results in various clinical and laboratory test manifestations, such as hypotension, hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, and acidosis. Primary adrenal insufficiency and congenital adrenal hypoplasia are discussed in other chapters. In this chapter the mechanisms underlying aldosterone-deficient conditions, such as hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism, primary hypoaldosteronism, including aldosterone synthase deficiency (ASD), acquired forms of the disease, and pseudohypoaldosteronism, an aldosterone resistance syndrome due to insensitivity of target tissues to aldosterone, are reviewed. For complete coverage of all related areas of Endocrinology, please visit our on-line FREE web-text, WWW.ENDOTEXT.ORG .
Introducing a fast and accurate method to estimate the seismic demand and capacity of first-mode-dominated multidegree-of-freedom systems in regions ranging from near-elastic to global collapse. This is made possible by exploiting the connection between the static pushover (SPO) and the incremental dynamic analysis (IDA). While the computer-intensive IDA would require several nonlinear dynamic analyses under multiple suitably scaled ground motion records, the simpler SPO helps approximate the multidegree-of-freedom system with a single-degree-of-freedom oscillator whose backbone matches the structure's SPO curve far beyond its peak. Similar methodologies exist but they usually employ oscillators with a bilinear backbone. In contrast, the empirical equations implemented in the static pushover 2 incremental dynamic analysis (SPO2IDA) software allow the use of a complex quadrilinear backbone shape. Thus, the entire summarized IDA curves of the resulting system are effortlessly generated, enabling an engineer-user to obtain accurate estimates of seismic demands and capacities for limit-states such as immediate occupancy or global dynamic instability. Using three multistory buildings as case studies, the methodology is favorably compared to the full IDA.
